For much of its modern history, Japan upheld an isolationist policy.  Although the nation had begun trading with the Dutch in 1600, Japan had remained closed to all other western countries as Japan feared the threat that their militaries posed to the small island.^[1]  In addition to this, the religious nature of the West was a point of concern to the power and strength of feudal lords who ruled the nation.  Following the introduction of the sakoku policy, which was the isolationist policy that spanned over 260 years, the Japanese were not allowed to travel abroad, all foreigners in the nation were expelled, and Christian worship was prohibited.  In order to enforce this, anyone found violating these rules was harshly punished.  Yet, understanding that they were likely to lose their trading monopoly with the nation, the Dutch urged the Japanese government to consider opening the nation to the West, although this was met with Japanese resistance.^[2]  As British and French warships came to the island, the Japanese implemented new defense strategies in order to defend themselves against what they believed to be western acts of aggression.

        It was not just nations within Europe that desired Japan to open to foreigners.  Between 1790 and 1853, at least twenty-seven ships were sent by the United States to visit the island of Japan, only to be turned away.  After establishing a relationship with China in 1944, the United States continued to search for new spheres of influence.  In 1832, as part of his epochal navigation of the Pacific, President Andrew Jackson requested Edmund Roberts to make a treaty with Japan, but he died before reaching the islands.^[3]  In the following decade, the United States sent Commander James Biddle of the American East Indian fleet to Japan in 1846.  During this trip, Biddle was not allowed to come ashore and when he and his men were ordered to depart immediately from Japan, he did as told, leaving Japan with little trace of his failed quest.  The only recorded history of his trip was the images of the American ships painted by the Japanese.^[4] 

In western popular culture, the island of Japan began to gain attention.  Moby Dick was published five years after Biddle’s failed expedition, and it was between the years 1846 and 1852 that whaling within the United States reached its peak.  The novel told the story of sailor Ishmael's journey and the fanatic quest of captain Ahab of the whaling ship The Pequod as Ahab sought revenge on Moby Dick, the giant white sperm whale that had previously bitten off Ahab's leg at the knee.  In the novel, Ishmael described a whaling boat in 1819 that visited the “remote waters of Japan.  That ship—well called the "Syren"—made a noble experimental cruise; and it was thus that the great Japanese Whaling Ground first became generally known.” ^[5]  Later on, Ishmael stated that “if that double-bolted land, Japan, is ever to become hospitable, it is the whale-ship alone to whom the credit will be due; for already she is on the threshold.”  ^[6]  As showcased in these quotes, Japan had been understood by Americans as a mysterious land that held a vengeful group of people as a result of their isolationist policy and treatment of shipwrecked soldiers, with the only knowledge of them resulting from the “unkind mercies of Japanese villagers” ^[7]  who dealt with shipwrecked whalers who found themself on the island.  

        Yet, just two years following the publication of Moby Dick, Japan was opened to America by the United States Navy.  Commodore Matthew Perry, also known as the “Old Bruin,” arrived in Japan in July of 1853 with two demands and one request, detailed in a message from President Millard Filmore.  With the addition of the west coast to the United States, establishing trade across the Pacific ocean became an important goal.  In addition to the warships in the harbor, Perry brought American gifts to showcase new technology they had developed, including rifles, pistols, a telegraph set, and wire, as well as a small-scale train.  Filled with flattery towards both the Japanese Emperor and his subjects that were “skilled in many of the arts,” ^[8] Fillmore’s letter requested that “steamships and other vessels should be allowed to stop in Japan and supply themselves with coal, provisions, and water,” which the Americans would pay for, and that the “unfortunate people [of shipwrecked vessels, like those described in Moby Dick,] should be treated with kindness, and that their property should be protected, till we can send a vessel and bring them away.”  Lastly was a firm request from the president – that Japan partakes in a trade “experiment” ^[9] between themselves and the United States.  Fillmore promised that if the trade between the two nations was not “as beneficial as was hoped, [then the] the ancient laws can be restored” ^[10] and Japan could return to their isolationist state.  

        Although Perry returned only with a treaty of friendship between the two nations, trade between America and Japan was established four years later and the experiment was considered to be a success.  Suddenly, the mysterious people who had lived on the islands of Japan became real to the West, showcased through works such as author Francis L. Hawk’s Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, performed in the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, under the Command of Commodore M. C. Perry, who went with Perry to Japan in order to document the journey.  Images of the Japanese, the geography of their island, and their lives became readily available to those outside of the nation.  In Hawk’s work, the Japanese are shown as being much smaller than the Americans, enjoying a culture that was much less developed than that of their western counterparts.  Take, for example, the image of the Temple at Tumai, Lew Chew.  In this image, an American with a camera is seen directing a group of Japanese individuals who are being photographed while another carries a gun.  In contrast to this, a Japanese man can be seen feeding monkeys while another is seen cleaning a dish by a well.  The Japanese were depicted as exotic and intriguing people who lived in a land that was vastly different from the geography of the United States.  As the Japanese began to learn and take direction from the Americans, they settled into what Americans came to believe was their proper, subordinate place.

        Following the establishment of friendship between Japan and the United States with the signing of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce in 1858, a select group of Japanese men visited the United States in 1860 to ratify the treaty.  This group consisted of three Gaikoku Bugyo, commissioners appointed by the Tokugawa shogunate whose job was to oversee trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and approximately eighty samurai.  Funded by the United States, as Congress had voted “to defray the expenses of their reception,” ^[11] nothing was spared.  Upon arrival, the Japanese were treated as if they were heroes, brought to their hotel by cavalry with a military band while onlookers threw flowers.^[12]  On March 15, 1860, the representatives of the Tokugawa shogunate met with President James Buchannan while clothed in traditional samurai dress, including a long sword they wore along their side.  This made them even more exotic to the Americans, who had never seen anyone in this style of dress before.  

During their travels throughout the United States, Americans described the Japanese as acting like children, being sure to emphasize their childlike cravings and actions.  The New York Daily Herald stated that it became evident to Americans that “the Japanese are inordinately fond of sugar, and were overjoyed, yesterday, when a party was taken to a sugar refinery to see how the sugar was manufactured.” ^[13]  In addition to this, the Japanese visitors explored other American industries, such as textiles, and to see how, as described by Americans, the “great paper” ^[14] was made, where they thoroughly inspected each machine.  Following their time in Washington, the men traveled to New York City, where they were met with similar fanfare, with the visitors accepting the “numerous applications for autographs…to which they are daily subjected, and from which they always gratefully thank any friend to release them.” ^[15] One of the men, Tateishi Onojiro, was lovingly given the nickname “Tommy” by the Americans after they misheard the true pronunciation of his name.  As individuals looked to him as if he was a celebrity, Tommy was “greatly delighted at being presented with a wood cut fac simile of his signature… [allowing him to] now make as many names as he pleased.” ^[16] 

Also while in New York, the Japanese took part in a parade.   The samurai, dressed in their silk kimonos and tall black caps on their top knotted heads, walked down Broadway.  This event, which “gave the finishing luster and the concluding glory to the whole exhibition” ^[17] that embodied their time in the United States, was nothing short of fantastical.  Accompanied by eight hundred militiamen, the “Japanese appeared to be greatly delighted at the exciting scenes, especially at the movements of the military” ^[18] which accompanied them, as children would.  The “thrilling strains of clarion, horn, and trumpet” ^[19] filled the air around them, contributing to the excitement of the event.  In fact, the event was so inspiring that it led poet Walt Whitman to write “A Broadway Pageant,” which was included in his work Leaves of Grass and focused on an ancient Asia waiting to be awoken by the West.  Throughout New York, the American populace “greeted the Japanese with a mixture of admiration, anxiety, suspicion, and condescension.” ^[20]  While the foreigners were considered to be “very respectable gentlemen,” ^[21] there was not complete public acceptance of the Japanese.  In California, the fanfare that surrounded their time in the United States was characterized as “a species of political Buddhism that is almost as bad as the Pagan worship the Japanese indulge in.” ^[22]  Yet, the Japanese, who were referred to by the New York Times as the “British of Asia” ^[23] as a result of their competence, were still far preferred to the other “rat-eaters” ^[24] they shared their continent with, such as the “rascally Chinaman,” ^[25] “semi-barbarous” ^[26] Russians, or the “thrifty” ^[27] Filipinos.  According to Americans, the Japanese were obedient, respectful, and accepted their “existing circumstances with the utmost pleasure,” ^[28] allowing them to gain the trust of Americans.  With this acceptance, they were invited into the western world, albeit considered lower than others.

        Between the mid-1800s and the end of the century, the Meiji Restoration transformed Japan.  Politically, Japan eliminated the Tokugawa shogunate and implemented a constitutional monarchy, which continued to center around the emperor.  In addition to this, technological advancements were made throughout the nation as the first railroad was constructed in 1872, and by 1880, all major cities were connected by telegraph lines.  Although Japan had begun to be considered a leading player in world politics, particularly in Asia with its victory over the Chinese in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), Japan truly showed its strength in 1904 when it provoked the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) following rival imperial ambitions between the two nations in Manchuria and Korea, with tensions reaching a peak when Japan launched an attack by sea on Port Arthur.  Following the Japanese attack, the Russian commander surprisingly chose to surrender.  Despite bitter fighting by both parties, with between 81,000 and 206,000 casualties,^[29] the Japanese overwhelmed Russian forces, leading Russian soldiers to become morally and militarily defeated and forcing them to negotiate peace.

Throughout America, support was strong for the Japanese, whom the populace believed were fighting a “just war” ^[30] against the Russians who had failed to modernize. A newspaper article from the Chattanooga Daily Times said that when “500 [Russian] men who occupied a casemate were not able to emerge, so quickly came the rush of the Japanese.  The Russians tried to emerge by the use of their bayonets in the face of machine gunfire.  Thus every man died–trying to resist machine guns with bayonets alone.” ^[31]  While Japan had embraced modernity brought to them by the United States, Russia had lagged behind.  This put the Russians at a technological disadvantage during the war.  The defeat of Russia, which was considered until this point to be one of the leading nations in the world, signaled a change.  With its victory during the Russo-Japanese War, Japan became the first Asian country to win a war against a western power.  The Treaty of Portsmouth, which was negotiated by President Theodore Roosevelt at the request of Japan, forced Russia to end its expansionist policies throughout Asia.  Russia was only allowed to keep the Chinese Eastern Railway in northern Manchuria, while Japan became the protectorate of Korea, as well as a majority of South Manchuria, including Port Arthur and the railway that connected it with the rest of the region, along with the southern half of Sakhalin Island.^[32] 

        Although Roosevelt won a Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in negotiating the treaty, the true victor was Japan.  Japan gained Korea through negotiations with Roosevelt, and both nations “agreed to a treaty where America and Japan would walk hand in hand onto the Asian continent to take it over.” ^[33]  As Roosevelt looked to the future, he saw Asia as a continent that would be dominated by the great powers of the world.  This included, unsurprisingly, the United States and the United Kingdom.  Yet, Roosevelt’s understanding of dominant world powers also included a new nation: America’s student, Japan.^[34]  In images produced in the United States, the once passive Japanese were portrayed as being strong, young, and full of spirit.  Of course, America, which was displayed as Uncle Sam or Roosevelt himself, was always shown as the diplomatic mediator in the images.  In contrast to the Japanese, the Russians were shown as old, weak, and weathered.  As Russia’s government began to crumble following the loss of the war and the public distrust towards the monarchy led to social unrest throughout the nation, the weak imagery that had been showcased throughout the Russo-Japanese war seemed to become true.  Japan was strong and powerful, America was a leader, and the old Russia began to wither away.

        Although Americans supported the Japanese abroad, Japanese immigration to America was understood much differently.  While the agreement made in 1894 allowing  free immigration from Japan to the United States had been amended in 1900, as the media believed that there was a need to stop Japanese laborers entering the United States who did not plan to stay within the nation, there was now the ability to deny passports to all Japanese laborers, also referred to by the derogatory term “coolies.” ^[35]  Yet, this policy did not bar desirable immigrants from entering the country, such as “students, travelers, business men, and the like.” ^[36]  Still, even with this immigration bill in place, hostility towards the Japanese did not stop.  On May 7, 1905, the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League, which looked to advocate for a “white man's country” ^[37] by prohibiting Asian labor and immigration, was organized in San Francisco, California.  Later that following year, on October 11, 1906, the San Francisco school board began a plan to place all Asian children in a segregated school.  With the United States pressured to keep good relations with Japan, Roosevelt met with the mayor of San Francisco, Eugene Schmitz, and the school board at the White House.  At this meeting, Roosevelt negotiated with them, leading their decision to be rescinded.  As Japan had previously prepared to further limit immigration from their nation to the United States, the Gentlemen’s Agreement was passed in February of 1907 as a way to mitigate tensions.  As a result of the board withdrawing their order, Japan agreed to deny passports to laborers intending to enter the United States and recognized the right of the United States to exclude Japanese immigrants holding passports issued for other nations, as many Japanese had been able to enter the United States through Canada, Mexico, and other nearby countries.

        Although the dynamics between the United States and Japan changed following the end of the Russo-Japanese War, with America hoping to quell Meiji Japan’s expansionist policy in Asia while giving them minimal power, this goal proved to be impossible with the onset of the First World War (1914-1918).  As Japan and England had signed the first Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, Japan joined the Allied forces, seeing this as an opportunity to make further territorial gains throughout the continent of Asia while maintaining global prestige.  Although Japan eventually gained Germany’s former colonies in the South Pacific following the end of the war, the Twenty One Demands made by Japan in 1915 to China sparked American and English apprehension.  China, which had become politically unstable with the fall of the Qing Dynasty just three years earlier, was extremely weak and unstable.  The demands were outlined by Japan and forced upon Chinese president Yuan Shikai, who was trying to remain the central political figure in China.  These demands consisted of allowing Japanese railway and mining claims in the province of Shandong, the granting of concessions in Manchuria to Japan, Sino-Japanese control of the Han-Ye-Ping mining base, and Japanese access to harbors, bays, and islands along China’s coast.  The only demand not accepted, as the contents of the demands were given to European powers who became concerned with Japanese tactics of gaining further control of China, was Japanese control of Chinese economic, political, and security affairs.  

        Not only did this list of demands spark great resentment towards the Japanese by Chinese citizens who protested “against the demands on the ground they infringed upon her [China’s] sovereignty and conflicted with existing treaties between China and other powers,” ^[38] but it also worried Americans as it hurt the Open Door Policy that had been established between the United States and China.  The Wichita Eagle reported that of the 21 initial demands, Japan had expected China to accept only 11.  These 11 demands, claimed The Arkansas City Daily News, “covered practically everything China has left to concede to foreign powers… [with the withdrawn commands arousing] such great popular opposition that the ten remaining demands would attract comparatively little attention.” ^[39] This seemed to be confirmed by reports made in The Wichita Eagle, which stated that “Mikado [a reference to the Emperor of Japan, was] now willing to dismiss several of his twenty-one demands made on China” ^[40] out of fear of international backlash.  As it was, by 1915, the United States considered the tactics used by Japan to be out of bounds, and the Japanese were described as threatening “China with force unless she accepted her [Japan’s] demands… [with Tokyo] saying Japan was sending garrisons there.” ^[41]  At the Paris Peace Conference, Japan continued to advocate for total control over the Shandong Province and won European diplomatic acceptance, despite the Chinese representative refusing to sign the treaty. The United States, becoming even more concerned with the predatory nature of Japan, gave China sovereignty over all of Shandong in 1922, while Japan's economic dominance in the region was allowed to continue.^[42]  

        Japan joined the League of Nations in 1920, although the United States did not.  Outside of the League of Nations, a disarmament conference was held in Washington, D.C. from 1921 to 1922 with one of the principal goals being to slow the spread of Japanese aggression throughout Asia, especially in regard to Siberia.  In a piece titled “White Man’s Country” from the Rutland News, the author stated that “in some respects Japan is magnificently endowed, not only for legitimate, but for illegitimate development… [If Japan took Siberia,] the Russians will come back… and they will fight with the north wind at their backs–and so fighting, they will win.” ^[43]  The treaties discussed at the conference included the Four-Power Pact between Japan, Great Britain, the United States, and France, which replaced the previously established Anglo-Japanese Alliance, as well as the Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty, which included the formerly mentioned nations as well as Italy.  This treaty also set limits for Japanese battleships at a ratio of three Japanese ships for every five held by the United States and England, keeping Japan in its proper place as a weaker power when compared to western nations.  To assure Japan's security in the Pacific, an agreement on the fortification of Pacific island bases was established. Lastly, a Nine-Power Pact was intended to protect China from further Japanese demands, as the Japanese agreed to retire from Shantung, and their army withdrew from Siberia and northern Sakhalin.  By including Japan as one of the leading nations of the world, Western leaders hoped to mitigate the need for Japan to prove itself on the international stage.^[44]         

        A second immigration act, ​​The Johnson-Reed Act,  was passed in 1924 during the administration of President Calvin Coolidge.  This immigration act further enraged the Japanese, who began to truly doubt the idea that Americans thought of them as a worthy race.  Although the 1917 Immigration Act had implemented a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language, increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival, and allowed immigration officials to exercise more discretion in making decisions over whom to exclude, and forbid entry for anyone born in a geographically defined “Asiatic Barred Zone,” with exceptions made for Japanese and Filipinos, the 1924 act enacted immigration quotas.  Quotas had begun three years prior, and there was no question of their constitutionality.  Many believed that the 1921 immigration act had not barred enough immigrants from the United States, leading to The Los Angeles Times advocating for stricter measures needing to be taken to bar “undesirables” ^[45] from entering the United States.  Therefore, the 1924 Immigration Act included a provision excluding from entry any alien who by virtue of race or nationality was ineligible for citizenship, looking to ease American anxieties as many assumed they could not assimilate to the United States and viewed the West Coast as nothing but a Japanese colony.^[46]  As an earlier act had forbidden Asians from becoming citizens, the Japanese were no longer allowed to become citizens of the United States.  Seeing this as a violation of the Gentlemen’s Agreement, the Japanese government protested.  Yet, the law remained, resulting in increased tensions between the two nations.

        In the United States, the new provisions were understood as a safeguard, as Japan now had to search for new lands in order to expand its sphere of influence.  Barring the Japanese from the United States was needed,  The Lima Gazette and the Lima Republican claimed, as the nation had to remain “on the diplomatic defensive as a result of her [Japan’s] efforts to colonize Manchuria and secure an impregnable foothold on the Asian mainland… seeking ‘a place in the sun’ for her human overflow.” ^[47]  Interestingly, individuals within the United States believed that Japan had set its eyes on Mexico, the nation that they would begin directing their immigrants to now that the United States had locked its doors.  The International News reported that although immigration to Mexico followed “the general lines of the American act, which excludes Chinese ‘coolie’ or laboring class, there is no bar to Japanese immigration at present… [as] Japanese immigration has never been a success there… because of the great mass of Mexican cheap labor with which the Japanese have been unable to compete.” ^[48]  While this was assumed to be the case, despite many Japanese immigrating to Peru, the paper argued that “new American immigration law, [as well as] the hostility against Japanese immigration that has manifested itself in Canada and Australia and the changing conditions that have been brought about in Asia by the strong comeback being staffed by the Russian soviet [following the Russian Revolution and rise of Lenin], the Japanese have apparently been forced to again cast a calculating eye on Mexico,” ^[49] sending an ambassador to survey the land for possible Japanese expansion.

        While many Americans shared the sense of fear towards the Japanese, worrying that they may overpower Americans, and supported the 1924 legislation, there were those that stood against the legislation.  With the American elites continuing to understand the Japanese as the leader of Asia, the Immigration Act was considered to be “an open insult to a sensitive, proud and highly progressive people, and has been taken as such by the Japanese” ^[50] by Appleton, Wisconsin’s The Post-Crescent.  While America had built itself upon immigration, it now excluded those that would better the nation, leading the nation to be considered by the paper as “the International Hypocrite… [as while America had professed] to be apostille of good will and to stand for human freedom, brotherhood and equality… [it was hidden behind a curtain where] she is carrying out her selfish schemes.” ^[51]  Appleton, Wisconsin’s The Post-Crescent reprinted an article from California that stated it was a disgrace to not join the League of Nations, which Japan had become a member of, and to then pass the Japanese Exclusion Act.  Although tensions had risen with the number of Japanese in California, in actuality, “this state is not being over-run by Japanese, [as] only 2 per-cent of the population belongs to this race… [and] there are only 72,000 Japanese in California all told and only one acre in sixty is owned or leased by them.” ^[52]  Yet, tensions within California remained, as it was stated that the “bill provides that certain Japanese are admissible to the United States… No quota is set up for Japan or China, Korea, Manchuria… or any other country in the Far East.  Why [it was asked, by the author,] should Japan have preference over sister countries in the Orient?” ^[53]  As it was, Canada had limited the number of Japanese to one-hundred-fifty per year, while Australia had barred the entry of Japanese altogether.  Certainly, the United States had done nothing wrong while protecting their own nation from an influx of the increasingly “aggressive Japanese yellow race,” ^[54] as they were referred to by the Washington D.C.’s Evening Star.  The Japanese had stepped out of their proper place and although this did not pertain to Japanese-Americans, white U.S. citizens saw little to no difference between the two.

        Although tensions remained high throughout the 1920s between the United States and Japan, American officials found no need to go to war with Japan over its imperialist ambitions.  American leaders understood that they did not have vital interests within China and did not have a legitimate reason to defend the nation.  This changed in late 1931 when a report from The Indianapolis Star stated that “China, Japan, and the League of Nations council appeared tonight to be approaching agreement on how to dispose of Japan’s demand for the right to act against bandits in Manchuria,” ^[55] claiming to act on behalf of China’s best interests.  The Japanese had invaded Manchuria on September 18, 1931, when the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria following the Mukden Incident, which was a small explosion on a Japanese railway that had been staged by the Japanese to provoke a conflict with China.  Two years following this incident, Japan’s aggression was recognized within the United States as a crisis assuming serious proportion as The New York Times reported that “Japan’s League of Nations delegation was ordered home [in February of 1933] as Japan prepared to quit the league.” ^[56]  Following China’s appeal to the League of Nations under Article 11, which gave members the right to raise matters that may threaten the peace of the nation, the Lytton Commission was appointed.  This committee recommended in October of 1932 that Manchuria should become a state under Chinese sovereignty.  Suddenly, whatever good feelings that were left towards the Japanese in the United States began to diminish rapidly.  Japan, which had already vetoed the initial appeal, rejected the commission’s findings and withdrew from the League of Nations in March of the following year, having already strengthened its hold on Manchuria during the time that had passed.  By leaving the League of Nations and attempting to take land away from China, Japan had left its proper place as a subordinate nation to the United States.

Despite the Japanese violation of the rules set by the League of Nations and The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1828 which made wars of aggression illegal, no sanctions were initially imposed on Japan.  Although conflicts were intended to be settled by “pacific means,” ^[57] a nation could take action if it was acting in self-defense, something that was never defined.  Although Japan’s delegate, Yōsuke Matsuoka, planned to visit Washington before returning to “present Japan’s case… Western powers… [had already planned] diplomatic pressure on Japan, with the United States participating.” ^[58]  The Japanese Diet, as a result, voted in favor of allocating over $37 billion dollars for war, funding an invasion of Jehol, which was located approximately 225 kilometers northeast of Beijing, China’s capital under the Qing Dynasty.  There was little that was able to be done to quell the imperialist ambitions of Japan, as a combination of an international economic depression and a limited desire to go to war to preserve China stopped both the League of Nations and the United States from taking any action to enforce the policies that had been agreed upon following the end of the First World War.

        Interestingly, Japan leaving the League of Nations was widely supported by the United States.  With the Japanese gone, German Chancellor Adolf Hitler had requested that Japanese possessions in the Pacific Ocean gained following World War One be returned to Germany, as they had forfeited the right to these lands.  A piece published in Pierre, South Dakota’s The Capital Journal stated that “when the ‘indomitable wills’ of the German nazi and the Japanese jingoes clash, the sparks should fly.  This is as it should be, for we can think of no better diversion of their militarist machines than a war between saber rattling Prussians and fire eating Japs… It might save the rest of the world a lot of grief to have these imperialistic exponents of extreme nationalism… attempt to conquer each other.” ^[59]  Perhaps a war between these two land-hungry countries, the paper supposed, would lead to mutual destruction, allowing the rest of the world to exist in peace.  While the United States government refused to comment on Japan’s decision, “when asked regarding a Japanese newspaper report quoting the Japanese foreign office … that the United States, Germany, and China have reached a tacit understanding for a united front against Japan… officials described the story as too absurd to dignify with a denial.” ^[60]  In Pennsylvania, The Lebanon Daily News reported that by leaving the League, “Japan has not only quit the great body… but has cast aside the greatest recognition it ever received from the western world.” ^[61]  No longer would Japan be highly regarded among the western powers of the world as the nation began to stray from the subordinate position it had held for so long.  

        As Japan attempted to appease its hunger for natural resources by establishing itself within China, it further abandoned its proper place.  With the secret signing of the He-Umezu Agreement in June of 1935, which gave the Japanese further power in China, The Oshkosh Northwestern reported that “Chinese officials played directly into the hands of the Japanese military commanders of north China and made the recent invasion of Hopei and Chahar provinces possible.” ^[62]  Therefore, when the Marco Polo Bridge incident did occur, officially beginning the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), American newspapers printed about the history of the bridge, which foreigners who visited China found to be “an interesting excursion,” ^[63] rather than the events occurring in Asia.  The Japanese had already been understood as aggressive, and the Chinese had allowed this to happen as a result of their “weak” ^[64] forces.  Therefore, an event such as this was to be expected.  

As letters from Americans in China began to reach home in the months that followed, attitudes towards the Chinese suddenly changed.  Individuals such as Miss Ruth Mayo, a missionary who had “spent 15 years in China and… learned to love the Chinese people and to enjoy their happy, carefree, philosophical natures,” ^[65] had their experiences printed in American papers.  Miss Mayo described the ruthless actions of the Japanese, who had “bombed the refugees waiting for a train at Sough Station in Shanghai to get away from the danger.  About 300 killed, [she wrote to Wisconsin’s paper the Leader-Telegram,] mostly women and 40 babies all under two years old.” ^[66]  In The Hutchinson News, located in Hutchinson, Kansas, an account from an American writer and his wife who had found refuge at a Buddhist temple told of the Japanese going “through the Chinese troops like a scathe through wheat… spitting machine gun bullets at helpless Chinese there [in Peiping] and in nearby villages.” ^[67]  Although the author admitted that he had not seen the Japanese abuse any women or children, he stated that “I can produce at least 30 Chinese farmers who will swear that Japanese troops looted homes, threw children from the windows and doors, and attacked girls and women.” ^[68]  Certainly, these actions were not in line with what Americans considered Japan’s proper place to be.

For almost a hundred years, from the 1850s until the 1930s, Americans had formed a clear image of who the Japanese were and what they represented.  Due to the racial differences, Americans who absorbed mass media believed that the Japanese were like children in need of a mentor, perhaps as a result of the White Man’s Burden, which looked to encourage westerners to spread their supposedly advanced way of being.  This led to the image of the Japanese being manipulated by Americans in such a way that led them to be understood as childish and in need of help, constantly having to be reminded of their proper place in international order once they moved back to their proper place following the end of the war.  Although the relationship between the United States and Japan had initially been that of mentorship, with the Japanese being understood as the inferior peoples in Asia, by the 1930s, Americans believed that Japan had begun to act irrationally, seeking to fulfill goals that the United States had not expected.  With this, images and rhetoric surrounding the Japanese changed.  Although the Japanese had initially been portrayed as diminutive, intriguing individuals who had rightfully shown their strength against the Russians, when this changed, their features began to be distorted and they began to be depicted as inhuman monsters instead of immature, needy children.  Although the United States had attempted to help them understand where they belonged, by acting out of bounds they had violated their right to act on their own accord, leading to this shift in rhetoric.  As the Japanese were still not considered to be equals to Americans, there was a need to return them to their proper place.